Wudu' (ablution, fiqh)

وُضوء

Wudu' (from wada'a, to be fair and clean) is the act, and the water used for it, in the lexical sense. The jurists define it: the Hanafis as washing and wiping specified members; the Malikis as a water purification of four members in a specific way; the Shafi'is as specific acts opened by intention; and the Hanbalis as using pure water on the four members in the prescribed way, in order and in succession. ¹²

Ghusl is washing the whole body in a specific way. Both wudu' and ghusl remove a ritual impurity, the minor and the major. Tahara is the wider term for removing impurity and removing its effect. Tayammum is wiping the face and hands with clean earth or sand in a specific way, and it serves for either impurity. ²³

Most jurists hold that wudu' belongs to earlier revelations, and that what is peculiar to this community is its specific manner or the mark of wudu', the white marks on the limbs on the Day of Resurrection, citing accounts of the prophets and of Sarah and Jurayj. A Maliki view, the opposite of the sounder Shafi'i view, and some Hanafis hold that wudu' itself is peculiar to this community. ²³⁴

Wudu' was made obligatory in Mecca along with prayer; the preposition 'with' refers to place, not time. ³ Its legal basis is the Qur'an, the sunna and consensus. The verse of sura al-Ma'ida (cited by sura and aya) is taken by some as the proof of obligation, while most read it as addressed to those who are in a state of impurity when they rise to pray. The sunna includes the saying that no prayer is accepted without purity. The people of biography agree that it was made obligatory in Mecca through Gabriel's teaching, and the community agrees on its legality and obligation. ⁵ Denial of its obligation for prayer is disbelief; for other purposes, such as touching the mushaf, the Hanafis do not count it as disbelief, because the verse is disputed. ⁵⁶

Whoever deliberately leaves wudu' and prays in a state of impurity: the Hanafis say one who makes light of religion is a disbeliever, as in deliberately praying without wudu'; the Malikis say he is killed for abandoning purity like prayer; the Shafi'is say he is asked to repent and killed as a hadd punishment, not as disbelief; the Hanbalis say one who abandons an agreed condition or pillar is treated as one who abandons the act, and one who leaves prayer is called to it for three days and killed if he does not pray. ⁶

The legal ruling varies with the purpose of wudu'. ⁶

First, where wudu' is obligatory: for prayer, the jurists agree it is obligatory for one in a minor impurity who wishes to stand for an obligatory or a voluntary prayer. ⁶ The Hanafis require it for the funeral prayer, which they count as a prayer; the majority also require it for the prostration of recitation. ⁶⁷ For tawaf, the Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis hold that it is obligatory for obligatory and voluntary tawaf; the Hanafis count it as necessary (wajib) and penalise: an obligatory tawaf in a minor impurity requires a sacrifice, and in a major impurity a camel. ⁷⁸ For touching the mushaf, the majority hold it obligatory, citing the verse of sura al-Waqi'a. ⁷

Second, where it is sunna: the Hanafis, Hanbalis and Shafi'is, other than al-Baghawi, hold that wudu' before sleep is sunna, on the hadith about lying down on the right side after wudu', reported in the two Sahihs as cited in the book's footnote. The Malikis call it recommended; one Maliki view is that for a junub before sleep it is sunna; another that it is obligatory. ⁸

Third, where it is recommended: a wudu' that is not a condition for the validity of the act but part of its perfection. ⁸ It is recommended for reciting the Qur'an and reading hadith, for remembrance of God, for the call to prayer, and for the iqama (on which the jurists differ), for the sermon, for studying religious knowledge, for standing at 'Arafat and for the sa'y between Safa and Marwa, and for visiting the Prophet ﷺ's mosque and his tomb. ⁸⁹ The renewal of wudu' is disputed. ⁹ For a junub, the Hanafis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis (the majority) recommend wudu' before eating, drinking, resuming intercourse and sleeping; the Malikis hold that the junub has no wudu' for eating, drinking or resuming intercourse, but washes his hands and his private parts. ¹⁰¹¹ The Hanafis also recommend keeping wudu' constant by renewing it whenever it is broken, and recommend it to leave a legal difference. ¹¹

Fourth, where it is permitted: the Malikis hold that the permitted wudu' is for cleanliness and cooling; Qadi Iyad mentions wudu' before entering rulers' presence or boarding a ship in danger, and says that it may be recommended; al-Hattab leans towards recommendation for all except cleanliness and cooling. Such a wudu' does not remove the impurity unless it is intended to. ¹¹¹²

Fifth, forbidden wudu': for the Malikis, renewing wudu' before an act of worship has been performed with it, or wudu' for a purpose for which it was not prescribed or permitted. ¹²

Merit of wudu': many hadiths on the removal of sins by it: purity is half of faith; the report from 'Uthman that whoever performs wudu' as the Prophet did has his earlier sins forgiven; the hadith of 'Umar on the eight gates of Paradise; and the hadith of Abu Hurayra (may God be pleased with him) on the radiant marks of the community. ¹²¹³ The conditions of wudu' are of three kinds: conditions of obligation, of validity, and of both; the first of the conditions of obligation is intellect, since no address is made to one who lacks it. ¹²¹³

The required washing: the majority (Hanafis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis) hold that it is enough for water to flow over a limb, without rubbing; the Malikis and al-Muzani require rubbing. ¹⁴ For the Hanafis washing means pouring water so that it drips, even a single drop; Abu Yusuf accepts merely wetting the place. ¹⁴ For the Shafi'is washing means the limb being washed, whether by the worshipper, another person or no act at all, such as rain falling on it. ¹⁴

The face is what is faced; its whole outer surface is washed. Its width runs between the ears, and its length from the hairline at the top of the head to the lower chin. ¹⁴¹⁵ The Malikis and Hanbalis measure the length for a beardless man to the hairline and for a bearded man to the end of the beard. ¹⁵ Hanging hair beyond the outline of the face: the Hanafis do not require it to be washed; the Shafi'is require the outer and inner surfaces to be washed if it is thin, and only the outer surface if it is thick, with one view requiring nothing. ¹⁵

Hair on the face: the Hanafis do not require washing the roots of thick eyebrow, moustache and beard hair because of hardship, but thin hair must be washed outside and inside to the skin. The Malikis require combing thin hair so that water reaches the skin, and say thick hair needs only outer washing. ¹⁶ The Shafi'is wash the eyelashes, eyebrows, moustache, sideburns and the hair of the lower lip outside and inside, and the same for a woman's or intersex person's facial hair; for a man's beard, thin hair is washed both sides and thick hair only outside, and where thin and thick hair are mixed the whole is washed. ¹⁶¹⁷ The Hanbalis require washing the beard and any hair hanging beyond the outline of the face, and the thick hair of the moustache, eyebrows, lower lip and of a woman or intersex person; combing the beard is recommended, the hadith on the handful of water under the chin being cited in the book's footnote. ¹⁷

The eye: the lid margin is washed with the face; crust on the lid must be removed. The majority do not wash the inside of the eye with the face, because the Prophet did not do so and because hot or cold water may harm it; a report from Ahmad requires it when there is no harm. ¹⁷¹⁸ If the inside of the eye is soiled with impurity, the Malikis, Shafi'is and one Ahmad view require washing it, while the Hanafis and the Hanbali school excuse it in prayer. ¹⁸

The hairline growth (ghumum), the hair that falls below its usual place, is washed with the face up to the usual limit. ¹⁸ The temples (tahdhif), the thin hair between the sideburn and the receding hairline, are disputed: the majority of Shafi'is, a Maliki view and the Hanbali sounder view treat them as part of the head and not washed with the face; the Hanafis, another Maliki view, a Hanbali view and a Shafi'i view, which Ghazali and Rafi'i call the sounder, treat them as part of the face. ¹⁸¹⁹

The white skin between the sideburn and the ear: the Shafi'is, the Hanbalis and the Hanafi view on which fatwas are given hold it is part of the face; a report from Abu Yusuf excludes it; the Malikis wash the skin level with the earlobe. ¹⁹

The lips: the red part visible when the lips close naturally is washed; one Hanafi view says the lip follows the mouth. ¹⁹ Washing part of the head with the face is obligatory in the majority view, and the Shafi'is add part of the throat, the area under the chin and the ears, since what the obligation cannot be completed without is itself obligatory. ¹⁹

The sideburn is washed with the face. The Shafi'is wash the part of the nose exposed by an amputation; the Malikis wash the septum between the nostrils. ²⁰ The majority hold that the inside of the mouth and nose are not part of the face and need not be washed in wudu'; the Hanbalis hold that the mouth and nose are part of the face, so rinsing and snuffing water are required in both minor and major purification, citing a hadith in which the book notes al-Daraqutni judged the connection to be a mursal narration. ²⁰²¹

The temple (sudgh), the bald part and the receding hairlines: the majority hold these are part of the head, not the face; one Hanbali view holds the temple is part of the face. Al-Shirbini says it is recommended to wash them with the face because of the disagreement. ²⁰²¹ The Malikis wash the folds of the forehead and any hollow of the eyelid if water can reach it by rubbing, and the rest falls away. ²¹

The ears: al-Zuhri included the ears in the face, citing a hadith about the face's creation. The majority reply that the ears are part of the head, citing the saying that the two ears belong to the head and the report that the Prophet wiped his ears with his head, and that the ears were attached to the face only because they neighbour it, as a thing takes the name of what adjoins it. ²¹²²

If the hair is washed and the skin below it becomes visible afterwards, the Hanafis, the Maliki preferred view and the Hanbalis hold that nothing more is required and wudu' is not repeated, because the duty passed to the hair; the Shafi'is in the sounder view, one Maliki view and Ibn Jarir require washing the newly visible skin, by analogy with a foot showing above a wiped sock. ²²

The second obligation: washing the hands to the elbows. It is a pillar and an obligation agreed by the Qur'an, by the report of Abu Hurayra describing the Prophet's wudu', and by consensus. ²²²³ The majority (the Malikis, Shafi'is, Hanbalis in the school view and the Hanafis except Zufar) hold that the elbows must be washed with the hands, whether 'to' in the verse means 'with' or marks a limit that is of the same kind as what it limits; they cite the hadith of 'Abbad al-Abdi describing the water running over the elbows. ²³ Zufar, a Maliki view and a view of Ahmad hold that the elbow is not included, by analogy with night in the verse on the fast; a further Maliki view includes it as a precaution. ²³

If part of the limb to be washed is cut off, the rest must be washed by agreement, on the hadith 'do what you can of what I order you' and because the easier is not dropped for the harder. ²³ The rule for an arm cut at the elbow continues beyond p.17391 and is not yet read; this part of the headword is not complete.

Amputation at the elbow: the jurists who require the elbow to be washed wash the place of the cut. The Hanafis, the Hanbali school, the Shafi'i sounder view and one Maliki view require washing the bone that is the upper end of the arm, because the two adjoining bones must be washed, and if one is absent the other is washed. ²⁴ The Malikis and a Shafi'i view against the sounder require nothing at the cut, since the elbow belongs to the forearm and the cut has taken it; unless a part of the elbow is known to remain in the upper arm, in which case the place of the cut is washed. ²⁴

Amputation above the elbow: the duty falls away because its place is gone, but the Shafis recommend washing what remains of the upper arm so the limb does not lack purity; if cut at the shoulder, washing the place of the cut with water is recommended. ²⁴

An extra finger, hand or arm: the Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is and the Hanbali judge al-Qadi wash an extra finger or hand that grows in the place of obligation alongside the original. If it grows outside the place of obligation, such as at the shoulder or upper arm, most jurists wash the part that lies opposite the place of obligation, while the sounder Hanbali view requires nothing for a distinct extra growth outside that place. ²⁴

Nails and what is under them: the Hanafis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis require washing the nail even when long, because it is joined to the hand by creation and so falls within the name of the hand. The Malikis and one Hanbali view hold that a small dirt under the nail does not harm the wudu' even if it blocks the water, and al-Mardawi calls this the sounder view, because it is common, so the Prophet would have had to explain it if it were a condition. ²⁵ The Hanafi fatwas state that a remaining dot of dough or dry or wet clay at the root of the nail prevents validity, while dye from henna or dough does not; a long nail requires water to reach under it and a short one does not; nails that go beyond the fingertips must be washed by agreement. The book reports that some Hanafis distinguish town dwellers from villagers, and that al-Dabusi gave a fatwa of validity. ²⁵²⁶ The Shafi'is require washing the hair on the hand, outside and inside, even if it is thick, and if it is so thick that the skin is not reached, the visible part only. ²⁶ The Malikis, in their preferred view, require the washing of the spaces between the fingers, the joints and the fold of the fingertips; a ring that is permitted to a man or a woman need not be moved, though a forbidden ring must be removed, and a loose ring is moved. ²⁶²⁷

An extra hand: the Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis require washing an extra hand that grows in the place of obligation. If it grows outside the place, the Hanafis, Shafi'is and a Hanbali view require washing what lies opposite the place of obligation; the Malikis require the whole if it has an elbow of its own. ²⁷ For the Hanafis, if a person has two hands, the one he uses to grasp is the original and is washed, while the other is extra; the Shafi'is require washing an extra hand that is not distinct from the original. ²⁷²⁸

A hanging fold of skin on the upper arm: the Hanafis and Shafi'is require washing only the part opposite the place of obligation, while the Hanbalis require washing a fold torn from the upper arm that hangs down the forearm, like an extra finger. ²⁸ A fold of the forearm is washed in full by the jurists; if its head is joined to the upper arm, the part opposite the place of obligation is washed, and the part that moves away from the limb is washed on its underside. ²⁸

The third obligation: wiping the head. It is agreed to be a pillar or obligation, by the Qur'an, by the descriptions of the Prophet's wudu' including the report of 'Uthman, and by consensus. Wiping is passing a wet hand over the head without running water. ²⁸ The questions about wiping the head begin here, starting with the amount that suffices, on which the jurists differ. ²⁸

Wiping the head: the Malikis in their preferred view and the Hanbalis in the sounder view require wiping the whole head, skin and hair, from the usual hairline at the front to the nape's hollow, together with the hair of the temples; the bone that projects and belongs to the face is not wiped but washed with the face. ²⁹ Other Maliki views: Ashhab requires only half, one report has the forelock enough, Muhammad ibn Maslama (may God be pleased with him) requires two-thirds, and Abu al-Faraj a third, with the hand passed back under the hair for full coverage, the return being recommended. ²⁹ The Hanbalis require wiping the whole outer head in the sounder view; a report from Ahmad allows most of it, the jurists disagreeing on how much is most; another allows the forelock, another any part without limit. Wiping the skin alone does not suffice. ²⁹

The Hanafis hold that wiping the head once above the ears is a pillar; the amount in the most famous view is a quarter of the head, which is the school's preferred view, with a report of the forelock and a third of three fingers' breadth, the last, which the Badai' calls the report of the principal books, and on which the Zahiriyya says fatwas are given. ²⁹³⁰ The Shafi'is require any wiping of part of the skin or part of the hair within the outline of the head, and allow either skin or hair as the part; the head is what is raised and rises. ³⁰

Method: the Hanafi sounder view requires three fingers to wipe; one or two fingers do not suffice in the apparent view, while the index and thumb spread with the palm between them count as three. The Hanbalis allow any manner, with the hand or with an intervening cloth, in the sounder view. ³⁰

Hair that falls below the head: the Hanafis, Shafis and Hanbalis do not require wiping it; the Malikis require wiping the hair that hangs down, however long, as it is hair of the head. ³⁰³¹

Washing the head instead of wiping: the majority allow it, as it is wiping and more; the Hanbalis in the sounder view require the hand to be passed over the head, while a report from Ahmad allows washing without passing the hand. The Hanafis, the sounder Maliki view and the Hanbalis hold that washing the head at the outset in place of wiping is disliked, since it contradicts what is commanded; some Malikis, a Shafi'i view and a Hanbali view deny that it suffices, since it is not called wiping. ³¹

Shaving the hair after wudu': the majority hold that this does not affect it. The Hanafis hold that wudu' is not repeated, since wiping hair is not a substitute for wiping the skin. A Maliki view requires repeating the wiping after shaving, which al-Dasuqi calls weak; al-Tabari requires repetition too. Ibn Rajab reports that Ahmad recommended wetting the head with water after shaving without requiring it. ³¹³²

Repeating the wiping: the Hanafis, Malikis and Hanbalis hold it is done once, since repetition becomes washing, and the Hanbalis cite that most who described the Prophet's wudu' mention one wiping, a view Abu Dawud supports; the Shafi'is recommend three wipings. ³²

Braided hair: for the Malikis, hair that is braided by itself need not be unbraided, however firm; hair braided with three threads must be unbraided, whatever its firmness; hair braided with fewer threads must be unbraided if firm. Al-Sawi notes that women may follow the Shafi'i or Hanafi view. ³²

Wiping over a turban is treated under its own heading. ³²

The fourth obligation: washing the feet to the ankles. There are four views. The first, held by the majority, is that washing the two feet is a pillar of wudu'. The jurists report consensus: Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Layla reports that the Companions agreed on washing the feet, al-Mawardi says the majority of jurists hold washing and not wiping, and al-Nawawi reports that Muslims agreed on the obligation to wash the feet. ³³

The second view is that the obligation is wiping and not washing, attributed to 'Ali, Ibn 'Abbas, Anas and al-Sha'bi, who relied on the genitive reading of the word for feet in the verse of sura al-Ma'ida. It is recorded that 'Ali retracted this, ordering the feet washed; Ibn Qudama says no jurist, other than those named, held the view of wiping. ³³³⁴

The third view, of al-Hasan al-Basri, al-Jubba'i and one report from al-Tabari, is that the worshipper may choose between washing and wiping. ³⁴ The fourth, held by some Zahiris, is that washing and wiping must both be done, since the two readings in one verse count as two verses. ³⁴

The majority require the ankles to be included in the washing; only Zufar disagreed. The ankles are the two bones that project at the foot of the leg. ³⁴

Second, the disputed obligations of wudu'.

First, intention: the majority hold it is a condition without which wudu' is not valid; some hold it a recommendation and others a pillar. ³⁴

Abandoning the intention: if the worshipper abandons the intention after finishing wudu', the Malikis, the sounder Shafi'i view and the sounder Hanbali view hold that it does not affect the wudu'; the other Hanbali view holds that it is void. If he abandons it during wudu', the Shafi'is in the sounder view say it is not void and he renews the intention for the rest, the Hanbalis in the sounder view say what has passed is void and he must begin again, and the Malikis in the preferred view do not excuse the abandonment, so it is void. ³⁵

Second, continuity (muwala): washing the limbs in succession, so that the first does not dry before the next is begun. The Hanafis, the new Shafi'i view, one Maliki view and a Hanbali report hold it recommended, a view of Ibn 'Umar, al-Hasan, Sa'id ibn al-Musayyab and al-Thawri. The Malikis in the preferred view, the old Shafi'i view and the Hanbali school hold it obligatory, a view of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (may God be pleased with him) and al-Awza'i. ³⁵

Third, order (tartib) in washing and wiping: the Shafi'is, the Hanbali school and one Maliki view hold it a pillar, a view of 'Uthman, Ibn 'Abbas, Qatada, Abu Thawr, Abu 'Ubayd and Ishaq. They argue from the verse, in which the wiping lies between the two washings, and that every account of the Prophet's wudu' gives the order. ³⁵³⁶ The Hanafis, the preferred Maliki view, some Shafi'is and one Ahmad report hold the order is a sunna, a view of Ibn Mas'ud and others, arguing that the verse uses 'and' which does not imply order and that a single immersion lifts the impurity. ³⁶³⁷

Fourth, rubbing (dalk): for the Malikis it is passing the hand over the limb moderately, whether or not dirt is removed, even after water is poured and before it dries. The majority of Hanafis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis, and one Maliki view, hold it a sunna, and the Shafi'is add that one should be thorough with the heels, especially in winter, citing the saying woe to the heels from the Fire. The preferred Maliki view makes it an obligation, citing a saying to Aisha to rub her body with her hand, a report which the book notes is not traced to a source.

Rubbing (dalk): the Malikis hold three views. The preferred view makes it obligatory, because it is a condition of the name of washing, and its advocates cite the instruction to 'A'isha to rub her body; the second, from Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, holds it is not obligatory, since the name of washing is met without it; the third holds it obligatory not in itself but to make sure the water reaches the skin, so that one who is sure the water has reached it after a long stay is excused. ³⁸

The sunnas of wudu'.

First, the basmala at the beginning. The majority of Hanafis and Shafi'is, and one Ahmad report, make it a sunna; the preferred Maliki view makes it recommended, another Maliki view disapproves; the Hanbalis make it obligatory. ³⁸³⁹ For the Hanafis any remembrance of God suffices, but the words reported from the Prophet and the Salaf are 'In the name of God the Mighty, and praise belongs to God for Islam', while some prefer the full basmala; the Shafi'is say the least is 'In the name of God' and the most complete is the full formula with praise for Islam and for the water being pure. ³⁹ The Hanbalis require the words 'In the name of God' and no other phrase suffices, in the most common view. ³⁹ The Hanafis count the basmala at each limb as a courtesy, and cite a report from al-Bara' ibn 'Azib about the two testimonies at each limb; al-Ayni calls its chain weak. The Hanbali school view does not recommend it at each limb. ³⁹⁴⁰

Second, washing the hands to the wrists at the beginning, which is a sunna following the Prophet's practice; if the hands are impure, washing them is obligatory by agreement. ⁴⁰

Third, rinsing the mouth: the majority hold it a sunna, and the Hanbalis obligatory. ⁴⁰

Fourth, snuffing water into the nose: the majority hold it a sunna, and the Hanbalis a pillar or an obligation. ⁴⁰

Fifth, blowing the nose out, a sunna for the four schools, on the hadith 'when you snuff, blow'. For the Malikis it is expelling water from the nose by breath with the index and thumb of the left hand placed on it; for the Shafi'is it is removing what is in the nose with the little finger of the left hand; the Hanbalis recommend doing it with the left hand. ⁴⁰⁴¹

Sixth, wiping the whole head. The Malikis in the preferred view and the Hanbalis make it obligatory, as already stated, while the Hanafis and Shafi'is make it a sunna. The Hanafis cite a report of wiping the whole head and the report of the Prophet wiping the forelock, so wiping a quarter is the obligation and wiping the whole is the sunna; they say that one who persistently leaves out wiping the whole head without excuse sins. ⁴¹ The Shafi'is recommend wiping the whole head to follow the practice and to leave the disagreement of those who require it. ⁴¹

Questions on wiping the head: first, repetition. The Hanafis hold that the whole head is wiped once with one water, and the reports of three wipings are taken to mean wiping with one water; al-Hasan reports from Abu Hanifa that three wipings with one water are sunna. Three wipings with fresh water are, in the Hanafi views, disliked, a bid'a, or permitted; the book quotes Ibn 'Abidin's preference for disliking it. The Shafi'is recommend wiping the whole head three times, one wiping after another, and a wiping of part of the head three times counts as three. ⁴²

Second, the recommended manner. The Hanafi preferred view is to place both palms and the fingers at the front of the head and draw them back to the nape, wiping the whole head, and then to wipe the ears with two fingers, the ears being part of the head. The Shafi'is say the sunna is to place the hands on the front of the head with the index finger joined to the other, the thumbs on the temples, to draw them back to the nape and bring them back to the place they started, where there is hair that turns; a person with no such hair only draws them back. The Hanbalis say repeating the wiping of the head is not recommended. ⁴²

The sunnas of wiping the head: the wiper returns the hands to where he began. al-Tirmidhi reports the account of Abu Hayya of 'Ali's wudu', in which the head is wiped once, and Abu Dawud reports that Ibn 'Abbas saw the Prophet wipe his head and ears with one wiping. ⁴³ Ahmad recommends repeating the wiping with fresh water, a view supported by Abu al-Khattab and Ibn al-Jawzi, and the same for the ears. ⁴³ The Malikis count as a sunna the return of the hand over the head to its starting point, since long hair cannot be covered without it. The return is a sunna only if wetness from the obligatory wiping remains on the hand, and renewing the water for it is disliked. ⁴³

The manner of wiping the head: the Malikis and Shafi'is take water in the right hand and pour it on the left palm, begin at the front, join the fingertips and place the thumbs at the temples, draw the hands back to the nape and return them to the start. ⁴³⁴⁴ For the Hanbalis the recommended manner is to draw the hands from front to back and return them to the start, following the report of 'Abd Allah ibn Zayd; then the index fingers enter the ear openings and the thumbs wipe the outer ears. A man with hair that would be ruffled by the return does not return, following the report of al-Rubay' bint Mu'awwidh. ⁴⁴ Ahmad, asked how a woman wipes, described the same motion. ⁴⁴

Seventh, wiping the ears. The Hanafis, the preferred Maliki view and the Shafi'is hold that wiping both the outer and inner ear is a sunna, on the hadith of al-Miqdam ibn Ma'di Karib describing the wiping of the ears and the insertion of the fingers into the ear openings. The majority take the outer ear as the part next to the head and the inner ear as the part facing outwards; a Maliki view reverses this, and the Malikis say the ear is made like a rose. ⁴⁴⁴⁵ The Malikis count three sunnas for the ears: wiping the outer and inner parts, wiping the openings, and renewing the water for them. The Shafi'is recommend fresh water for the ears. ⁴⁵ The Hanbalis and some Malikis make the wiping of the ears obligatory, because they belong to the head; they recommend fresh water for them after wiping the head, and the white skin above the ears is part of the head and is wiped with it. ⁴⁵⁴⁶ The Hanbali recommended method is to put the index fingers in the openings and wipe the outer ears with the thumbs, and the cartilaginous parts within are not required. ⁴⁶ The Hanafis hold that wiping the whole head and both ears with one water suffices, since they are part of the head; their preferred manner is the one described above, and wiping the ears with the damp remains is enough, while fresh water is better to satisfy the disagreement; they recommend putting the wet little finger into the ear opening. ⁴⁶

Eighth, combing the beard and the hair of the face is recommended in the main, with the disagreement treated under washing the face. ⁴⁶

Ninth, passing the fingers between the fingers of the hands and feet is treated under its own heading. ⁴⁶⁴⁷

Tenth, repeating each washing three times is a sunna among the jurists; the hadiths vary: once, with the statement that this is the wudu' without which prayer is not accepted; twice, with the statement that it doubles the reward; and three times, with the statement that it is his wudu' and that of the prophets. ⁴⁷

Eleventh, the miswak. The majority hold that using the miswak is a sunna in wudu', citing the saying that had it not been a hardship on his community he would have ordered the miswak with every wudu'. The Hanafis call it a strongly confirmed sunna; the Malikis, in their preferred view, a recommendation; al-Dasuqi notes that the hadith suggests a sunna even against the preferred view. Its detailed rules are under their own heading. ⁴⁷

Twelfth, the wiping over the turban is disputed and is treated under its own heading. ⁴⁷

Thirteenth, not wasting water, which is treated under its own heading. ⁴⁸

Fourteenth, starting with the right side of the hands and feet. The Hanafis, Malikis and the sounder Hanbali view hold it recommended, citing the report of 'A'isha that the Prophet liked to start on the right in all his affairs, and the accounts of 'Uthman and 'Ali describing that he began with the right before the left. ⁴⁸ The Shafi'is and some Hanafis hold it a sunna, on the saying that when you perform wudu' you begin with your right sides; Ibn al-Hammam says it is a sunna because of his constant practice. One Hanbali report, cited by al-Razi and rejected by al-Zarkashi, makes it obligatory; another says leaving it is disliked. Ibn Qudama reports consensus that one who begins with the left need not repeat. ⁴⁸⁴⁹

Fifteenth, prolonging the bright marks (ghurra and tahjil): the Shafi'is and the sounder Hanbali view hold it a sunna, meaning washing beyond the obligatory place of the face, hands and feet. The Hanafis count it as a courtesy: for the face it reaches the side of the neck with the front of the head, and for the arms and legs it reaches the upper arm and the shin. The basis is the saying about the community being called radiant with white marks from the wudu'; the Shafis and Hanbalis hold this to be a feature peculiar to this community. ⁴⁹ The Malikis and one Hanbali report do not recommend it, and Malik regards it as disliked, as an excess in religion; they read the 'prolonging' in the saying as continuing the state of purity, not as extra washing. Al-Dasuqi distinguishes the two senses. ⁴⁹⁵⁰

Sixteenth, facing the qibla while performing wudu': the Hanafis and Malikis hold it a courtesy, limited by what is possible without hardship; the Shafi'is and Hanbalis hold it a sunna, as it is suitable for every act of worship unless there is a reason. ⁵⁰

Seventeenth, sitting in a raised place, a courtesy for the Hanafis and Malikis, to keep clear of the water used in wudu' and to protect clothes from dripping; the Shafi'is recommend avoiding the spray. ⁵⁰

Eighteenth, performing wudu' in a clean place, a recommendation for the Hanafis and Malikis. The Malikis dislike wudu' in a lavatory, because such a place is not for purity. ⁵⁰⁵¹

Nineteenth, not seeking help. The Shafi'is and Hanbalis hold it a sunna; the Hanafis count it a courtesy. The Prophet was helped by al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba in pouring water, and Safwan ibn 'Assal poured water on him, but not seeking help is better. ⁵¹ The Shafi'is distinguish helping with the pouring, which is disliked but not sinful, from helping by bringing water, which is allowed, and it is obligatory when the person cannot purify himself otherwise, for a reason such as illness. ⁵¹ Ibn Mawdud says help is disliked except when one is unable; Ibn 'Abidin says help in pouring, drawing or fetching water is not disliked at all, while help in washing or wiping is disliked without a reason. ⁵¹⁵²

Twentieth, wiping the neck: the Hanafis and one Ahmad report count it a recommendation, and some say it is a sunna. The Malikis, Shafi'is and the sounder Hanbali view do not recommend it, since nothing is reported for it; al-Nawawi calls it an innovation, and the Malikis say it is disliked as an excess in religion. ⁵²

Twenty-first, moving the ring in wudu': the Hanafis and Shafis recommend moving a loose ring, and likewise an earring; for a tight ring it is recommended if water is known to reach, and obligatory if not. Ahmad ibn Hanbal says a tight ring must be moved, and the details continue on the next page. ⁵²

The ring: if water reaches beneath it the wudu' is valid; the Prophet is reported to have turned his ring in wudu', and if one doubts whether water reaches under it, moving it is required, since the default is that it does not. For the Malikis a permitted ring need not be removed or moved even if tight; a forbidden ring must be removed if it is forbidden to wear, and moving it is enough if it is loose. ⁵²⁵³

Twenty-second, starting with the front of each limb. The Shafi'is recommend beginning with the top of the face, the fingertips and the front of the head. The Hanafis and Malikis recommend beginning each limb at its front: the face at the hairline, the hands at the fingertips up to the elbows, the head at the hairline to the hollow of the nape, and the foot at the toes to the ankles. ⁵³

Twenty-third, not speaking. The Hanafis and Shafi'is recommend silence without need; the Malikis and the sounder Hanbali view call speech disliked, and the Malikis and Ibn Muflih say the dislike applies to speech other than the remembrance of God. ⁵³

Twenty-fourth, greeting the one performing wudu' and returning the greeting. The Malikis, some Shafi'is and some Hanbalis hold that greeting him is prescribed and that the reply is prescribed too; the Shafi'i Shaykh al-Islam says the reply is obligatory. The Furu' says most Hanbali texts do not dislike either greeting or reply, while Abu al-Faraj and others say greeting is disliked. The book cites the report of Umm Hani, who greeted the Prophet while he was washing. ⁵⁴

Twenty-fifth, supplication at each limb. The Hanafis, Malikis, most Shafi'is and some Hanbalis recommend it. The book lists the traditional formulae for each limb; al-Ayni's view, cited with Ibn 'Abidin, is that the report reached the grade of good through its several chains, and that a weak report may be acted on in matters of virtue on conditions. ⁵⁴⁵⁵ The Shafi'i view in one form and the sounder Hanbali view deny that it is recommended; the Hanbalis call it disliked in the sense of leaving the better; al-Nawawi says supplication at each limb has no basis, and Ibn al-Qayyim says the formulae popular with the common people for each limb have no origin in the Prophet's practice. ⁵⁵

Twenty-sixth, supplication after wudu'. The Shafi'is and Hanbalis recommend that the performer, facing the qibla with his hands and eyes raised to the sky, says the testimony of faith, then the words from the report of 'Umar about the eight gates of Paradise, then the words that Tirmidhi adds to Muslim's report, then 'Glory be to You, O God, and praise, I testify there is no god but You, I ask Your forgiveness and turn to You', from the report of Abu Sa'id in al-Nasa'i which al-Nasa'i judged to be an account of Abu Sa'id's own words. The Shafi'is and Hanbalis also recite the surah of Power three times. ⁵⁵⁵⁶ The Hanafis, Malikis and Shafi'is recommend blessing the Prophet after wudu', and the Hanafis and Malikis add a formula about being among the penitent and the purified. ⁵⁶ Al-Buhuti explains that ending wudu' and prayer with seeking forgiveness recognises that people fall short of God's due. ⁵⁶⁵⁷

Twenty-seventh, drying the limbs. The Malikis, Hanbalis and the older Shafi'i view allow drying or leaving it. The Hanbalis say leaving it is better; the Hanafis count drying as a courtesy; the sounder Shafi'i view makes leaving it the sunna unless there is an excuse, since drying removes the trace of worship. The Hanafis and a Shafi'i view hold that drying is disliked. ⁵⁷

Twenty-seventh, not shaking off the hand or the water. The Hanafis and the sounder Shafi'i view recommend not shaking the hand, on the hadith 'when you perform wudu' do not shake your hands, for they are the fans of Satan', which Ibn Hibban judged a rejected report. The sounder Hanbali view and one Shafi'i view dislike shaking off water. Ibn Qudama says that shaking water off the body is not disliked, though shaking the hand is; the author of Ghayat al-Matlab holds the sounder view is that it is not disliked. ⁵⁸

Twenty-eighth, drinking the water left over from wudu'. The Hanafis and Shafi'is recommend it straight after the wudu', on the report from 'Ali that the Prophet drank from his leftover wudu' water; the perfect form is to drink standing, facing the qibla, and some say sitting is allowed. A supplication for health is said after drinking, which the book notes is not traced as transmitted. ⁵⁸⁵⁹

Twenty-ninth, two rak'as after wudu'. The Hanafis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis recommend them, on the saying of 'Uqba ibn 'Amir about the Garden for one who performs wudu' well and then prays two rak'as with heart and face attending. The Hanafis and Hanbalis pray them outside the times of disliked prayer; the Shafi'is hold they may be prayed at any time, since they have a cause. ⁵⁹

Thirtieth, renewing wudu', that is, performing wudu' over a wudu' that has not been broken. Some jurists call it a sunna, some a recommendation, some forbid it before an act of worship is done with it, and one report from Ahmad says it has no merit; the details are under its own heading. ⁵⁹

Thirty-first, not using less than a mudd of water. The majority recommend not going below a mudd, on the report of Anas that the Prophet performed wudu' with a mudd. The Malikis in their most common view and a Hanafi view hold that no fixed measure applies, the aim being the virtue of moderation; Ibn 'Abidin reports from al-Hilya that several scholars report consensus that the amount needed is not fixed. Ibn Shaban of the Malikis says less than a mudd does not suffice. ⁶⁰

Thirty-second, not blowing into the water while washing the face, which the Hanafis count among the courtesies of wudu', and performing wudu' from the water of the common people. ⁶⁰

Thirty-third, the order among the sunnas. The Hanafi and Shafi'i school views make the order among the sunnas a sunna, while the Malikis and a Hanafi view make the order within each sunna recommended. If the order is reversed among sunnas, or between sunnas and obligations, no repetition is required, since a missed recommended act is not commanded again. One Shafi'i view makes the order of the recommended parts obligatory, by analogy with the pillars of prayer. ⁶⁰⁶¹

Thirty-fourth, taking water in both hands for washing the face. The sounder Shafi'i view, stated in al-Muzani's Mukhtasar and held by most Shafi'is, is that the recommended manner is to take water in both hands, on the report of 'Abd Allah ibn Zayd that the Prophet put his hands in and washed his face three times, and because it is more complete. A Shafi'i view says one hand; a third view of Zahir al-Sarakhsi says to scoop with the right hand, placing its back on the palm of the left, on the report of Ibn 'Abbas. The Hanbalis say that scooping with both hands, or with the right hand joined to the left, is the established sunna. ⁶¹⁶²

The disliked acts (makruhat). The jurists list several things as disliked in wudu'.

First, striking the face or the other limbs with water, the face being singled out for its honour; disliked for the Hanafis and Shafi'is. ⁶²

Second, stinginess, that is, using only enough water to moisten the limbs without visible dripping; the water should drip so that each of the three washings is certain; disliked for the Hanafis. ⁶²

Third, extravagance, using more water than the legal need, on the report of Sa'd, whom the Prophet passed while he was performing wudu' and asked whether there was extravagance in wudu'; the reply was yes, even by a flowing river; and because it is the excess that leads to scrupulosity, and the saying that no one overdoes religion without being overcome by it. The Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis all dislike it. ⁶²

Among the disliked acts, the Hanafis and Shafi'is add that water endowed for those who purify with it, such as the water of a madrasa, is forbidden to waste, since the excess is not permitted, the endowment being for the proper wudu'. Ibn 'Abidin limits this to still water; running water is permitted. ⁶²⁶³

Fourth, performing wudu' with the water left by a woman, meaning the water left after her purification, without her having drunk from it or put her hand in it without intention. Some Hanafis, some Shafi'is and one report of Ahmad dislike it out of regard for the disagreement. Some Hanafis, one report of Ahmad, the Maliki school view and some Shafi'is, including al-Baghawi, hold that it is pure and purifying, and that using it is not disliked; they cite the report of Ibn 'Abbas about a wife of the Prophet washing from a basin, and the saying that water does not become impure by a state of major impurity. ⁶³ The apparent Hanbali school view forbids a man to purify with the leftover water of a woman, on the hadith of al-Hakam ibn 'Amr al-Ghifari; al-Mardawi says this prohibition is an act of worship whose meaning is not understood, so it is permitted to the woman herself. ⁶³⁶⁴

Fifth, wiping the head three times with fresh water: the Hanafis and Malikis dislike it, and the Hanbali school does not recommend repeating the wiping of the head. ⁶⁴

Sixth, performing wudu' in an impure place, which is disliked because water used in wudu' is to be respected, and so that nothing dripping from the limbs falls on what is impure. The Hanafis add that throwing phlegm into the water or blowing the nose into it is disliked for purity's sake. ⁶⁴

Seventh, wudu' in the mosque. It is disliked except in a vessel or a place prepared for it, according to the Hanafis, a report of Ahmad and Malik; the Shafi'is and the sounder Hanbali view allow it provided no one is harmed and the mosque is not harmed. Sahnun says wudu' in the courtyard of a mosque is not allowed. The book cites the hadith to place purification places at the mosque doors, and al-Haythami notes a break in its chain. ⁶⁴⁶⁵

Eighth, pouring out the water of wudu' in the mosque. The Hanbalis dislike it, and dislike it in a place trodden on, such as the road. The Shafi'is allow letting it fall on the mosque floor if no one is harmed. ⁶⁵

Ninth, wudu' with water heated by the sun. The preferred Maliki view, the Shafi'i school view and some Hanafis dislike it; the majority of Hanafis, the Hanbalis, one Maliki view and some Shafi'is allow it without dislike. ⁶⁵⁶⁶

Tenth, leaving one of the sunnas of wudu'. The Malikis say it is disliked to leave one deliberately, though prayer is not invalidated by leaving it; if it is left deliberately or forgetfully, it is recommended to perform it for the prayers that follow with that wudu'. The Hanafis regard leaving a recommended act as contrary to the better course, and some call it disliked for purity's sake. ⁶⁵⁶⁶

The things that break wudu'. For the Hanafis, breaking wudu' means taking it out of its purpose, such as permission to pray; for the Malikis, it is the ending of its ruling or the lifting of its continuance for what it permitted, such as prayer. The jurists differ on some of these and agree on others. ⁶⁶

First, what comes out of the two passages, agreed in general, citing the verses of sura al-Ma'ida and sura al-Nisa'. The word 'gha'it' is a figure for the need to relieve oneself in a sunken place. If someone comes from the place without need, wudu' is not obligatory, by consensus. The jurists distinguish customary from rare emissions, and emissions from the rear passage, the front passage, the wife's passage, or other places. ⁶⁶

Second, impurities leaving other parts of the body. The Malikis and Shafi'is hold that these do not break wudu'; only the place they touch is cleansed. The Hanafis and Hanbalis hold that such impurities, like vomit and blood, break wudu' in general, with differences among them. ⁶⁶⁶⁷

Third, loss of the mind, through sleep, madness, intoxication or fainting. Sleep is held by the majority of Hanafis, Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis to break wudu' in general, on the hadith that the eyes are the binding of the buttocks, so whoever sleeps must perform wudu'. ⁶⁷ The Hanafi distinction: a sleeper who lies down or leans on his side breaks it, because the joints go loose, while one who leans on something that would fall if it were removed is to be examined. ⁶⁷

Sleep, in the Hanafi analysis. If the sleeper is standing, bowing or prostrating and his seat is not off the ground, wudu' is not broken; if his seat has left the ground, it is broken by consensus. If the seat is off the ground but the sleeper has not left it entirely, al-Qaduri says it breaks, the Hanafi view attributed to al-Tahawi, while al-Zayla'i says the sounder view is that it does not, a report of Abu Yusuf from Abu Hanifa. A sleeper in prayer does not lose his wudu' in these cases; one who sleeps outside prayer in the posture of prostration breaks it unless he is in that posture as described. A sick person who prays lying down and falls asleep breaks his wudu', on al-Zayla'i's view, by the hadith on lying down. ⁶⁸ If one sleeps sitting and falls over onto his face or side: if he wakes before falling, or wakes at the moment of the fall, or fell asleep and awoke at once, wudu' is not broken; if he settled after the fall and then woke, it is broken, for he slept reclining; Abu Yusuf says the fall itself breaks it. ⁶⁸ The Hanafis say sleep is not itself a cause of impurity; the cause is what the sleeper does not avoid, and the apparent sign, sleep, stands in its place, as travel does in another rule. ⁶⁸⁶⁹

The Malikis have two methods. The first, that of al-Lakhmi, is that the quality of the sleep counts and not the posture: heavy sleep breaks wudu' in any posture, and its sign is that the sleeper is not roused by a loud sound or by a fan falling from his hand; sleep that is not heavy does not break it. The second method makes heavy sleep break in all cases and light sleep break only when lying or prostrate, not standing or sitting; it is attributed to 'Abd al-Haqq. The first is the better-known Maliki view. ⁶⁹

The Shafi'is hold that sleep breaks wudu' in any form except the sleep of one who is firmly seated on the ground or another firm seat, even if he leans on something that would fall if it were removed, because no emission from the rear passage is then likely. The emission from the front passage is not considered, as it is rare, and the report of Anas that the Companions slept and then prayed without renewing wudu' is read as the sleep of the firmly seated. ⁶⁹⁷⁰ Al-Nawawi gives rules: it is recommended for a firmly seated sleeper to renew his wudu' as a precaution; if one is sure he slept but unsure whether he was seated firmly, no wudu' is due; if one slept sitting and his buttocks left the ground before waking, wudu' is broken, but if they left after he woke or at the same time, or it is not known which came first, it is not broken, since the default is purity. There is no difference between little and much sleep. A sleeper crouched with knees raised has three views, and the preferred is that it does not break. One who sleeps on his back with his buttocks flat is held to break wudu', and if he is strapped in place the well-known view is that it still breaks. ⁷⁰⁷¹

The Hanbalis divide sleep into three kinds. The sleep of one who lies down breaks wudu', little or much, on the view of all who hold sleep breaks it. The sleep of one who sits breaks it if much, not if little. The sleep of one standing, bowing or prostrating: Ahmad has three reports, the school view being that it breaks, the second that it breaks only if much, and the third that the bowing does not break while the prostration does. They cite the general wording of the hadith on the eyes as the binding of the buttocks and the hadith 'whoever sleeps should perform wudu''; and for the sitter they cite Safwan ibn 'Assal on not removing socks during travel except after impurity, excrement, urine or sleep. ⁷¹ The seated sitter who leans, or sits crouched, is treated as one who lies down in one view, while Ahmad says light sleep does not break it, and he regards leaning and reclining as more severe than crouching. ⁷¹ Ibn Qudama holds that a sitter whose seat is firmly on the ground breaks wudu' only through much sleep, since the evidence for the sitter makes no distinction. ⁷¹⁷² The Hanbalis differ on how much sleep counts. Abu Ya'la says there is no fixed measure and it is what custom reckons. Another view makes it what changes the sleeper from his posture, as when he falls or dreams. Ibn Qudama says there is no fixed measure, since measures are known only from revelation; so whatever shows much sleep, such as the fall of a firmly seated sleeper, breaks wudu', and if one is in doubt whether it was much, it does not break, since purity is certain. He adds that sleep is an overcoming of the mind, so one whose mind is not overcome needs no wudu', and one who doubts whether he slept, or has a thought of uncertain origin, a dream or a passing thought, needs none. ⁷²

Second view: Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, Abu Mijlaz, Humayd al-A'raj and 'Amr ibn Dinar are reported to hold that sleep does not break wudu' at all, citing the report of Anas about the Companions waiting for the late evening prayer until their heads nodded. Al-Mardawi cites al-Maymuni that it does not break. Sa'id ibn al-Musayyab used to sleep lying down several times while waiting for prayer and then pray without renewing his wudu'. Ibn Qudama suggests they held that sleep is not itself an impurity and that the impurity is doubtful, so certainty is not removed by doubt. ⁷²

The Hanbalis on sleep: one who sleeps while he believes his purity remains does not lose it; Ibn Taymiyya chose this view, while al-Khallal called that report an error. ⁷³

Second, fainting and swooning break wudu' by agreement. ⁷³ Third, madness, little or much, breaks it by agreement. ⁷³ Fourth, intoxication breaks it by agreement. ⁷³

Fifth, touching the private part of an adult, male, female or intersex, is disputed as a breaker; its detail is under its own headings. ⁷³ Sixth, the touching of the skin of a man and a woman is disputed; its detail is under its own headings. ⁷³

Seventh, apostasy. The Hanafis, the sounder Shafi'i view, a group of Malikis and a Hanbali report hold that apostasy in itself does not break wudu', but nullifies deeds if it is joined to death; so one who apostatised while in wudu' and then returned to Islam keeps his wudu' if nothing else broke it. ⁷³⁷⁴ The preferred Maliki view, the sounder Hanbali view and a Shafi'i view hold that apostasy breaks wudu', citing the verse of sura al-Zumar on the nullification of works, and holding that the address is to the community and not to the Prophet, while a report from Musa ibn Mu'awiya from Ibn al-Qasim recommends wudu' after apostasy. Al-Sawi explains that the nullification is of the reward, and that wudu' becomes due on the preferred view because the returning apostate is in the position of one who has just reached maturity. ⁷⁴

Eighth, laughing aloud in prayer. The majority (Malikis, Shafi'is and Hanbalis) hold that it does not break wudu' but invalidates the prayer; the Shafi'is recommend wudu' after it. The Hanafis, and what is reported from al-Hasan, al-Nakha'i and al-Thawri, hold that laughing aloud in a full prayer, meaning one with bowing and prostration, breaks wudu' and invalidates the prayer. ⁷⁴

Ninth, eating what fire has touched. There are two views. The first, held by the majority and reported from Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, 'Ali, Ibn Mas'ud and others, is that it does not require wudu'. They cite the report of Ibn 'Abbas that the Prophet ate a shoulder of mutton and prayed without wudu', the report of Jabir that the last of the two matters was leaving wudu' after what fire had changed, and the saying that wudu' is for what comes out and not for what goes in, which Ibn Hajar judges weak in its chains. The second, held by 'Umar ibn 'Abd al-Aziz, al-Hasan, al-Zuhri, Abu Qilaba and Abu Mijlaz, is that wudu' is required; they cite the hadith 'perform wudu' from what fire has touched' in Muslim from Abu Hurayra, 'A'isha and Zayd ibn Thabit (may God be pleased with him). ⁷⁵

Tenth, eating camel meat. There are two views. The first, held by the Hanafis, Malikis, the newer Shafi'i view and a Hanbali view, is that it does not break wudu', like other food; the reason given by al-Kasani is that the breaker is the emission of an impurity or what causes it, and that did not occur. The second, held by the old Shafi'i view, Ishaq, Yahya ibn Yahya, Ibn Khuzayma and Ibn al-Mundhir, is that wudu' is required for camel meat alone, little or much, raw or cooked; they cite the report of Jabir ibn Samura (may God be pleased with him) about the man who asked whether to perform wudu' after mutton and camel, and the Prophet's answer to perform it after camel, and the report of al-Bara'. ⁷⁶ The Hanbali detail: the school view is that camel meat breaks wudu' whether eaten knowingly or not, raw or cooked; Ahmad has a report that raw meat breaks it but cooked does not; another that it breaks in no case, chosen by Yusuf al-Jawzi and Ibn Taymiyya; and a third that it breaks only if the prohibition was known, chosen by al-Khallal. ⁷⁶⁷⁷ The other parts of the camel, such as the hump, fat, liver and paunch, do not break it on the school view; drinking camel's milk or the broth of its meat does not, and one report from Ahmad says drinking its milk does. ⁷⁷

Eleventh, eating forbidden food. The Hanbali reports differ: forbidden food breaks wudu', or forbidden meat in every case, or only pork. The school view is that eating meat other than camel meat does not break it, whether lawful or forbidden, since the rule for camel meat is one that is not understood by its meaning and so is not extended. ⁷⁷

Twelfth, washing the dead. The majority do not count it among the breakers; the Hanafis say wudu' is recommended after washing the dead. ⁷⁷

The sounder Hanbali school view is that washing the dead breaks wudu'; some Hanbalis allow that it does not, when the dead person was washed in a shirt. ⁷⁸

Twelfth, doubt about whether one has wudu' or not. The Malikis hold that doubt is a breaker, since the duty is not discharged without certainty; their three cases are: one who doubts, after knowing his earlier purity, whether a breaker occurred; one who doubts, after knowing his impurity, whether wudu' occurred; and one who knows both purity and impurity and doubts which came first. ⁷⁸ The majority hold that doubt about whether wudu' remains or has ended is not a breaker: one who is certain he was pure and doubts whether a breaker occurred, or the reverse, acts on the earlier certainty. They cite the hadith in Muslim about a man who feels something in his belly and does not know whether anything came out, who is not to leave the mosque until he hears a sound or smells something. ⁷⁸⁷⁹

Thirteenth, backbiting and foul speech. A report from Ahmad holds that backbiting, obscenity and the like, including tale-bearing, lying, slander and false witness, break wudu'; 'A'isha is reported to have said that one performs wudu' after good food but not after a foul word that he utters. The Hanafis and Shafi'is recommend the proper wudu' after foul speech such as backbiting. ⁷⁹